An algorithm to find the ancient meaning of Arabic words

A few weeks ago, I talked to a friend about how we can understand the meanings of words in old texts. In Arabic, the grammar is not an issue because it was fixed with the Qur’an. Also, words that appear in the Qur’an are extensively documented. However, the challenge is understanding words that are not in the Qur’an.

In this article, I would like to show what I do when I want to know what a word might have meant centuries ago. This happens to me a lot when I read old texts, especially poems.

The discussion with my friend started with a line of the well-known pre-Islamic poet ʿAmr ibn Kulthūm (عمرو بن كلثوم):

كَأَنَّ سُيُوفَنَا مِنَّا وَمِنْهُمْ – مَخَارِيقٌ بِأَيْدِي لَاعِبِيْنَا

As though our swords, ours and theirs, were kerchiefs twisted for beating therewith, in the hands of players.

If you copy the Arabic sentence and search it on Google, you’ll find many translations like the one above. So, what’s the problem?

Understanding a sentence can be tricky, especially when words have multiple meanings or unclear meanings. I’m curious about the historical meanings of words at different times. Especially the poetry of the Jahiliyyah (جَاهِلِيَّة), the time before Islam was known, is really challenging.

I would now like to explain step by step how we can approach the above questions and how to proceed in general when studying ancient texts. We will do this using the word مَخَارِيقُ.

A step-by-step approach

I usually proceed like this:

1. First, I determine the Arabic root (جِذْر). In our case, مَخَارِيقٌ, we get the root: خ-ر-ق. The core meaning of the root is to tear (apart); to make a hole.
2. Then I check the pattern (وَزْنٌ) of the Arabic word. In our example, مَخَارِيقُ, I see the pattern مَفاعِيلُ which could be a so-called ultimate plural pattern (صِيغَةُ مُنْتَهَى الجُمُوعِ) of the singular مِفْعالٌ. For example, the Arabic word for lantern is singular مِصْباحٌ and plural مَصابِيحُ. So we can now guess that the possible singular form is
3. I also check if the word could be a derived noun (اِسْمٌ مُشْتَقٌّ) based on certain patterns because then we can guess the meaning. In our example, the pattern مِفْعالٌ is used for a noun of instrument (اِسْمُ آلةٍ) or a noun of intensification (وَزْنٌ سَماعِيٌّ لِأَمْثِلَةِ المُبالَغَةِ مِنْ الثُلاثِيِّ) as the meaning is often closely related.
4. Then I consult the current dictionaries because I want to know whether the word is still used today and, if so, what it means.
5. Eventually, I move on to dictionaries which include data of the past.

Hans Wehr and Oxford Dictionary

Of course, it’s a bit silly to think that we’ll find the answer in a concise dictionary of Modern Standard Arabic, but let’s try the one most commonly used by Westerners: the Hans Wehr.

Let’s check the root خ-ر-ق and see if there is an entry for مَخَارِيقُ or the corresponding singular form مِخْراقٌ.

Also in the Oxford Dictionary of contemporary Arabic, I could not find an entry.

Since there is no entry in the two most updated dictionaries of Modern Standard Arabic, this is already an indication that we deal with a word that is either very rare or simply no longer used today. This tells us all the more that we need to dig deeper.

al-Munjid and al-Mughni al-Wassit

Before I go on to the more classical and older dictionaries, I like to check the word in two dictionaries written by Arabs: al-Mughni al-Wassit (المغني الوسيط) which is an Arabic-English dictionary and al-Munjid (المنجد) which is an Arabic-Arabic dictionary.

In al-Mughni, we find the following entries:

• مِخْراقُ لاعِبٍ – toy; plaything; ineffectual sword
• مِخْراقٌ – piece of fabric (like a handkerchief) twisted into a rope for children to strike one another with

In al-Munjid, I do not find any entry.

So at least we have an idea now and the meanings presented in al-Mughi already give us a hint that the word in question is old. We also see that we may have to deal with a genuine Arabic word and not a standard derivation of the root.

Now, we move on to Lane’s famous Arabic lexicon.

Lane’s Lexicon

Edward William Lane compiled a renowned Arabic-English Lexicon, which remains one of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the Arabic language. Published in the 19th century, this monumental work meticulously documents the language’s richness and historical depth, offering insights into classical Arabic usage.

I really like using Lane’s Lexicon. It gives me a quick, but deep, idea. The problem with Lane’s dictionary is that it only evaluates certain sources. So when you look up a word, you do get one or more definitions – but that is often not enough or can lead you astray.

In addition, Lane’s Lexicon usually does not tell me how the meaning and application of an Arabic word has changed over time and when it was first documented (a deficiency we will correct in the next step). And it is in dire need of revision, as it contains some inaccuracies and translation errors.

Nevertheless, Lane’s Lexicon is an excellent place to start when dealing with old words. So let’s take a look at what we find here for the word مِخْراقٌ:

You can access this great lexicon online:

• PDF: https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0729.pdf
• Online and searchable: https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/07_x/057_xrq.html

I have summarized the entry from the Lane Lexicon:

With the help of Lane’s Lexicon, we have already made great progress in understanding the meaning of the word مِخْراق – especially that in the poetry verse quoted above.

Lisan al-Arab

In principle, Lane’s Lexicon is based to a large extent on Lisan al-Arab by Ibn Manzur (ابن منظور), perhaps the most important Arabic-Arabic dictionary ever written.

Since we already have some knowledge of Arabic, it can’t hurt to take a look at the original and try to understand the explanations Ibn Manzur gives. Especially if you have read the entries in Lane’s Lexicon and have the translated explanations in mind, Lisan al-Arab is actually quite easy to read.

• Online Version with full-text search:

To be honest, it is not always easy to find your way in the Lisan al-Arabic Lexicon. If we check all the places where we find an explanation of مِخْراق, we get the following information:

• generous (الكريم كالخِرْق)
• wild bull (الثور الوحشي), also because the dogs pursue him, and he escapes from them (والثَّور البَرِّي يسمى مِخْراقــاً لأن الكلاب تطلبُه فيُفْلت منها)
• What boys play with from rags (ما تلعب به الصبيان من الخِرَقِ)
• A rag is a handkerchief or something similar that is twisted and used to strike or wrapped around someone to frighten them. It is a toy that children play with. (مِنديل أَو نحوه يُلوى فيُضرب به أَو يُلَفُّ فيُفَزَّعُ به، وهو لُعْبة يَلْعب بها الصبيان)
• Originally, among the Arabs, it is a garment that is wrapped and used by children to beat each other (عند العرب ثوب يُلَفّ ويضرب به الصبيانُ بعضهم بعضاً).
• We also get the information here that the word was used in at least one Hadith (حديث): …that it is a tool with which the angels drive the clouds.
  
  I found the Hadith in Shia Libraries: Lightning is a whip of light by which the angels drive the clouds. (البَرْقُ سَوْطٌ مِنْ نُورٍ تَزْجُرُ بِهِ المَلَائِكَةُ السَّحَابَ).
• We also learn from Lisan al-Arab that الْمِخْرَاقُ could denote a tall, handsome man (الطويل الحَسن الجسم)

We now have many explanations, but how do we know what the word in the verse meant back then? In any case, we are talking about the time before the emergence of Islam. To find an answer to this question, we can consult a really fantastic Arabic-Arabic dictionary which has been launched recently: The Doha Historical Dictionary of Arabic. We will see the results in the next step.

The Doha Historical Dictionary of Arabic

This digital dictionary tells you in which historical sources the word appeared and also shows you the date. You can access The Doha Historical Dictionary of Arabic here: https://www.dohadictionary.org

Important: To bookmark, share or copy/paste entries, you must register a free account and be logged in.

When we enter مخاريق, we are automatically seeing the entries for مِخَرِاق and also get the information about the plural forms. We should start by scrolling down to the end of the list, where we see an overview of the nature of the words:

That’s basically what we did at the beginning of our quest when we looked at the pattern and thought about possible derived nouns (اِسْمٌ مُشْتَقٌّ) of the core root.

Now, let’s start with the results.

We see that the first known occurrence dates back to the year 573, although let’s be clear: most of the dates in this period are estimates. I am particularly interested in the second example, which dates back to the year 609 AD (13 BH):

After the explanation, we find an example of a verse by Yazīd ibn al-Khadhdhāq al-Shannī al-ʿAbdī (يزيد بن الخَذّاق الشَّنّيّ العَبْديّ), a pre-Islamic poet, and we also get the source:

Al-Mufaddaliyat: Al-Mufaddal Al-Dabbi (died 178 AH), edited and explained by: Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, Abdul Salam Harun, Dar Al-Ma’arif, Cairo, 6th edition. Note: Al-Mufaddal Al-Dabbi (المُفَضَّل الضَّبِي) was an Arabic philologist of the Kufan school. Al-Mufaddaliyat is a group of 126 poems collected by Al-Mufaddal Al-Dabbi in the 8th century.

Let’s quickly take a look at all the other results:

• 573 AD (50 BH – before the Hijra): a sharp, long-pointed spear (الحَرْبَةُ الحَادَّةُ الطَّوِيلَةُ السِّنَانِ)

• 609 AD (13 BH): the wild bull (الثَّوْرُ الوَحْشِيُّ)
• 635 AD (14 AH – after the Hijra): It means sword (السَّيْفُ)
• 699 AD (80 AH): lightning (البَرْقُ)
• 871 AD (257 AH): camouflaged lie (الأُكْذُوبَةُ المُمَوَّهَةُ)
• 947 AD (336 AH): the outlet from which water comes out (المَنْفَذُ الَّذِي يَخْرُجُ مِنْهُ المَاءُ)

Now, what about the special form of a noun of exaggeration/intensification (صِيغَةُ مُبَالَغَة)? We get this information:

• 609 AD (13 BH): very light and fast in combat (الشَّدِيدُ الخِفَّةِ وَالسُّرْعَةِ فِي القِتَالِ)
• 643 AD (22 AH): the very frightened and the one who is stuck in his place (الشَّدِيدُ الفَزَعِ وَاللُّبُودِ فِي مَكَانِهِ)
• 670 AD (50 AH): المِخْرَاقُ of spears and the like: quick to pierce and penetrate (المِخْرَاقُ مِنَ الرِّمَاحِ وَنَحْوِهَا: السَّرِيعُ الثَّقْبِ وَالنَّفَاذِ)
• 573 AD (50 BH ): So المِخْرَاقُ can also denote: the one who is very generous (الشَّدِيدُ التَّوَسُّعِ فِي العَطَاءِ)
• 869 AD (255 AH): المِخْرَاقُ among people: the one who is very foolish and ignorant (المِخْرَاقُ مِنَ النَّاسِ: الكَثِيرُ الحُمْقِ وَالجَهْلِ)
• 976 AD (366 AH): a liar who makes up a lot (الكَذَّابُ الكَثِيرُ الِاخْتِلَاقِ)
• 1028 AD (419 AH): المِخْرَاقُ from verbs and similar: strange and out of the ordinary (المِخْرَاقُ مِنَ الأَفْعَالِ وَنَحْوِهَا: العَجِيبُ الخَارِجُ عَنِ المَأْلُوفِ)

Is that all? No, we also need to check a possible meaning of a noun of instrument (اِسْمُ الْآلةِ).

• 632 AD (11 AH): a whip (السَّوْطُ)
• 748 AD (130 AH): a drill (المِثْقَابُ)

Now, the dictionary also says that the word مَخْرَقَة may form the plural مَخارِق or مَخارِيق. So, just in case, what does المَخْرَقَةُ mean?

• 728 AD (110 AH): the road in the vast desert (لطَّرِيقُ فِي الفَلَاةِ الفَسِيحَةِ)
• 791 AD (175 AH): a lie (الأُكْذُوبَةُ)
• 930 AD (318 AH): a strange idea for which there is no convincing evidence (الفِكْرَةُ الغَرِيبَةُ الَّتِي لَا يَقُومُ عَلَيْهَا دَلِيلٌ مُقْنِعٌ)
• 990 AD (380 AH): sorcery and magic (الشَّعْوَذَةُ وَالسِّحْرُ)

The Sharjah Historical Dictionary

You may still have doubts up to this point or not yet be convinced of the result. There is another historical dictionary that is excellent and was published in August 2024: The Historical Dictionary of the Arabic Language.

You can access it online (free): https://www.almojam.org

Important: To bookmark, share or copy/paste entries, you must register a free account and be logged in.

This digital dictionary tells you in which historical sources the word appeared and also shows you the date. The Sharjah Historical Dictionary of the Arabic Language (معجم اللغة العربية بالشارقة) comprises an impressive 127 (!) volumes. More than 300 Arab scholars and linguists, editors and experts from 10 countries worked on the dictionary.

This is what we get for our word in question. You see in the first line a possible meaning of the word which is pretty much the same as we got so far.

The Doha and Sharja dictionaries often provide similar results. Nevertheless, it may be worth taking a look at both. Personally, I prefer the Doha Dictionary.

Final step: find a good translation

So let’s summarize all this to see how we can now arrive at a possible and at least comprehensible translation of the verse we presented at the beginning:

كَأَنَّ سُيُوفَنَا مِنَّا وَمِنْهُمْ – مَخَارِيقٌ بِأَيْدِي لَاعِبِيْنَا

As though our swords, ours and theirs, were kerchiefs twisted for beating therewith, in the hands of players.

In the first part, we see the Arabic word for sword. The last word is the Arabic word for players. When we now use the information we have gathered and put the words sword and players into this context, the above translation makes sense to me. Of course, we cannot ask the poet what he actually meant, but we can at least explain why we chose this translation.

If you know Arabic well, you will usually go straight to The Doha Historical Dictionary of Arabic or the Sharjah Historical Dictionary – but it never hurts to see what other authors think about it or how they have translated it into English.

If you know any other good source to examine the meaning of ancient Arabic words, please share it with us. You can send me a message or use the comment section.

Note: The feature image was generated by AI and is for illustration purposes only. The Arabic script in the image makes no sense – so please don’t try to decipher it ;-)